Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

3 Main Questions:

- What is heredity?

The transmission of traits from one generation the the next.

- What is genetics?

Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and heredity variation.

- What are the two types of reproduction?

Asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.

5 Main Facts:

- One of the characteristics of life is the ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind.

- Offspring resemble their parents more than they do unrelated individuals.

- Parents endow their offspring with coded information in the form of hereditary units called gene.

- Only organisms that reproduce asexually produce offspring that are exact copies of themselves.

- In meiosis, DNA replication occurs during interphase before meiosis I begins.

Diagram

A spindle apparatus was formed. In the late prophase II, chromososmes, each still composed of two chromatids associated at the centromere, move toward the metaphase II plate.

Summary

One of the characteristics of life is the ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind. The transmission of traits from one generation to the next is called inheritance. However, sons and daughters are not identical copies of their parent or their siblings.

Parents endow their offspring with coded information in the form of hereditary units called genes. The transmission of hereditary traits has its molecular basis in the precise replication of DNA, which produces copies of genes that can be passed along from parents to offspring.

Video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1_-mQS_FZ0

10 Key Terms

- Variation: differences between members of the same species.

- Locus: a specific place along the length of a chromosome where a given gene is located.

- Gamete: a haploid reproductive cell, such as an egg or sperm.

- Asexual reproduction: the generation of offspring from a single parent that occurs without the fusion of gametes.

- Sexual reproduction: a type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the parents.

- Karyotype: a display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.

- Sex chromosome: a chromosome responsible for determining the sex of an individual.

- Autosome: a chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex.

- Fertilization: the union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.

- Zygote: the diploid product of the union of haploid gametes during fertilization.

Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle

3 Main Questions

- What is cell division?

The reproduction of cells.

- How many stage are there in the Mitotic division of an animal cell?

There are 5 stages in Mitosis.

- What is genome?

The genetic information of a cell.

5 Main Facts:

- The continuity of cell is based on the reproduction o

f cells.

- The reproduction of an ensemble as complex as a cell can not occur by a mere pinching in half; a cell is not like a soap bubble that simply enlarges and splits into two.

- The cell division process is an integral part of the cell cycle, the life of a cell from the time it is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division into two cells.

- A particular human cell might undergo one division in 24 hours.

- Mitosis is conventionally broken down into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Diagram

This is the interphase stage of mitotic division. A nuclear envelop bounds the nucleus which contains one or more nucleoli. Two centrosomes formed by replication of a single centrosome. In an animal cells, each centrosome features two centrioles. Chromosomes duplicated during S phase and can not be seen individually because they have not yet condensed.

Summary

The ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind is the one characteristic that best distinguishes living things from nonliving matter. This unique capacity to procreate, like all biological functions, has a cellular basis. Every cell from a cell. The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell division.

The replication and distribution of so much DNA is manageable because the DNA molecules are packaged into chromosomes, so named because they take up certain dyes used in microscopy.

Video:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lf9rcqifx34

10 Key Terms:

- Somatic cell: any cell in a multi cellular organism except a sperm or egg.

- Gamates: a haploid reproductive cell, such as an egg or sperm.

- Sister chromatid : either of two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached to each other by proteins at the centromere and , sometimes, along the arms.

- Centromere: the specialized region of the chromosome where two sister chromatids are most closely attached.

- Centrosome: structure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells, important during cell division; functions as a microtubule.

- Cytokenesis: the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis, meiosis I or II.

- Interphase: the period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing.

- Metaphase: The third of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate.

- Anaphase: the fourth stage mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell.

- Prophase: the first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin condenses, the mitotic spindle begins to form, and the nucleolus disappears, but the nucleus remains intact.

Chapter 11: Cell Communication

3 Main Questions:

- How are cells of yeast identify their mates?

Cells of yeast identify their mates by chemical signaling.

- What is signal transduction pathway?

The process of which a signal on a cell's surface is converted to a specific cellular response.

- What are the two mating types?

Mating type a and mating type α.

5 Main Facts:

- Numerous cells can simultaneously receive and respond to the molecules of growth factor produced by a single cell in their vicinity.

- Both animals and plants use chemicals called hormones for long distance signaling.

- Epinephrine stimulates glycogen phosphorylase.

- There are three stages of cell signaling: reception, transduction, response.

- Ligand binding is similar to the binding of an allosteric regulator to an

enzyme, causing a shape change that either promotes or inhibits enzyme activity.

Diagram

The receptor protein is activated, it is detected by specific relay proteins inside the cell. Each protein binds to a specific phosphorylated tyrosine, undergoing a resulting structural change that activates the bound protein. Each activated protein triggers a transduction pathway, leading to cellular response.

Summary

Cell to cell communication is essential for multicellular organism. Trillions of cells in a multicellular organisms must communicate with each other to coordinate their activities in a way that enables the organism to develop from a fertilized egg, then survive and reproduce in turn.

There are three stages of cell signaling: reception, transduction, response. Reception is the detection of target cell of a signaling molecule coming from outside of the cell. Transduction is the binding of the signaling molecule changes the receptor protein in some way, initiating the process of transduction.

Video:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6uHotlXvPo

10 Key Terms:

- Local regulator: a secreted molecule that influences cells near where it is secreted.

- Hormones: in multicellular organisms, one of many types of secreted chemicals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids , and act on specific target cells in other parts of the body to change their functioning.

- Ligand: a molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one.

- G protein: a GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor to other signal transduction proteins inside the cell.

- G protein coupled receptor: a signal receptor protein in the plasma membrane that responses to the binding of a signaling molecule by activating a G protein.

- Receptor tyrosine kinase: a receptor protein in the plasma membrane, the cytoplasmic part of which can catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a tyrosine on another protein.

- Ligand-gated ion channel: a protein pore in cellular membranes that opens or closes in respones to a signaling chemical, allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions.

- Protein kinase: an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein.

- Protein phosphatase: an enzyme that removes phosphate groups from proteins, often functioning to reverse the effect of a protein kinase.

- Second messenger: a small, nonprotein, water soluble or ion, such as a calcium ion or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signaling molecule bound by a signal receptor protein.

Chapter 10: Photosynthesis

3 Main Questions:

- What is the formula for photosynthesis?

6Co2 + 6H2O + Light Energy --> C6H12O6 +6O2

- What is photosynthesis?

The conversion of light energy to chemical energy that is stored in sugars or other organic compounds.

-Where does photosynthesis take place?

Plants, animals and certain prokaryotes.

5 Main Facts:

- Plants are photoautotrophs, organism that use lights as a source of energy to synthesize organic substances.

- Decomposers are some heterotrophs consume the remains ofdea organisms by decomposing and feeding on organic litter such as carcasses, feces, and fallen leaves.

- The two stages of photosynthesis are light reaction and Calvin cycle.

- The light reactions use solar power to reduce NADP+ to NADPH by adding a pair of electrons along with an H+.

- The chloroplast uses light energy to make sugar by coordinating the two stages of photosynthesis.

Diagram

The diagram briefly showed the whole process of photosynthesis. To be specific, it shows the main reactants and products of the light reaction and the Calvin cycle as they occurs in a plant cells. Enzymes in the chloroplast and cytosol convert G3P, the product of Calvin cycle, to many other organic compounds.

Summary

Life on Earth is solar powered. The chloroplasts of plants capture light energy from the sun and covert it to chemical energy stored in sugar and other organic molecules. This process is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis consists of two main stages which are light reaction and Calvin cycle.

The light reaction is a step that convert solar energy into chemical energy. Calvin cycle starts by separating CO2 from the air into organic molecules already present in the chloroplast. In addition, this first step of Calvin cycle into organic compounds is called carbon fixation. Then the Calvin cycle reduces the fixed carbon to carbohydrate by the addition of electrons.

Video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hj_WKgnL6MI

10 Key Terms:

- Autotroph: an organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms.

- Heterotroph: an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or substances derived from them.

- Chlorophyll: a green pigment located within the chloroplasts of plants and algae and in the membranes of certain prokaryotes.

- Mesophyll: the ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis and specialized for photosynthesis.

- Stomata: a microscopic pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems that allows gas exchange between the environment and the interior of the plant.

- Stroma: within the chloroplast, the dense fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane.

- Thylakoid: a flattened membranous sac inside a chloroplast.

- Photophosphorylation: the process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton motive force generated across the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast or the membrane of certain prokaryotes during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

- Wavelength: the distance between the crests of electromagnetic waves.

- Electromagnetic spectrum: the entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation ranging in wavelength from less than a nanometer to more than a kilometer.

Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration Harvesting Chemical Energy

3 Main Questions:

- What is the equation for Cellular Respiration?

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 +6H2O + Energy(ATP + Heat)

- What are the 3 stages of cellular respiration?

Glycolysis, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosph

orylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis.

- How many ATP glycolysis produces?

2 ATP

5 Main Facts:

- Electrons lose very little of their potential en

ergy when they are transferred from glucose to

NAD+.

- One catabolic process, fermentation, is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs without the use of oxygen.

- The most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway is aerobic respiration, in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.

- The term cellular respiration includes both

aerobic and anaerobic processes.

- In redox reaction, the loss of electrons from one substance is called oxidation.

Diagram:

This is a methane combustion as an energy-yielding redox reaction. The energy released from the reaction to the surroundings due to the electrons lose potential energy when they end up being shared unequally. They also spending more time around the electronegative atoms sucj as oxygen.

Summary

Living cells require transfusions or energy from outside sources to carry out their function and tasks. In order to finish those tasks, living cell need to run through a few process which includes cellular respiration. Cellular respiration consists of both aerobic and anaerobic processes.

In cellular respiration, glycolysis, citric and cycle, oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis are the three main stages. In addition, the electron carrier in cellular respiration is FADH2.

Video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xbJ0nbzt5Kw

10 Key terms:

- Electron transport chain: a sequence o electron carrier molecules that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.

- Glycolysis: the splitting of glucose into pyruvate.

- Acetyl CoA: acetyl coenzyme A; the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme.

- Cytochromes: an ion containing protein that is a component of electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts.

- ATP synthase: a complex of several membrane proteins that provide a port through which protons diffuse.

- Chemiosmosis: an energy coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work, such as the synthesis of ATP.

- Alcohol fermentation: glycolysis followed by the conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.

- Latic acid fermentation: glycolysis followed by the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, with no release of carbon dioxide.

- Obligate anaerobe: an organism that only carries out fermentation or anaerobic respiration.

- Facultative anaerobic: an organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but that switches to anaerobic respiration or fermentation if oxygen is not present.

Chapter 8: An Introduction to Metabolism

3 Main Questions:
- What is metabolism?
The totality of an organism's chemical reactions.
- What is the first law of thermodynamics?
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it can not be created or destroyed.
- What is chemical energy?
Chemical is a term used by biologists to refer to the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction.

5 Main Facts:
- Metabolism as a whole manages the material and energy resources of the cell.
- An object not presently moving may still possess energy.
- During catabolic reaction, atoms are rearranged and energy is released, resulting in lower energy breakdown products.
- Moving objects can perform work by imparting motion to other matter.
- During every energy transfer or transformation, some energy becomes unusable energy, unavailable to do work.

Diagram

This diagram is the active site and catalytic cycle of an enzyme. An enzyme can convert one or more reactant molecules. The enzyme shown in the diagram is converting two substrate molecules to two product molecules.

Summary
The living cell is a chemical factory in a small world where thousands of reactions occur within a microscopic space. Small molecules are assembled into polymers, which may be hydrolyzed later for the needs of the cell change.
Sugars can be converted into amino acid that are linked together into proteins when needed, and proteins are dismantled into amino acids that can be converted to sugars when food is digested.

Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cbZsXjgPDLQ

10 Key Terms:
- Energy: the capacity to cause change.
- Chemical energy: a term used by biologists to refer to the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction.
- Bioenergetic: the study of how energy flows through living organisms.
- Potential energy: it is energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure.
- Entropy: a measure of disorder, or randomness.
- Free energy: the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell.
- Endergonic reaction: is one that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.
- Enzyme: a macromolecules that acts as a catalyst, a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
- Subtract: the reactant on which an enzyme works.
- Coenzyme: an organic molecule serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function as coenzymes in metabolic reactions.

Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function

3 Questions
- What is selective permeability function?
This is a plasma membranes that allows some substances to cross it more easily than others.
- What is amphipatic?
It is some molecule that has both hydrophilic region and hydrophobic region.
- What is passive transport?
Passive transport is the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane.
5 Main Facts
- The plasma membrane is the edge of life, the boundary that separates the living cell from its surroundings.
- A membrane is held together primarily by hydrophobic interactions, which are much weaker than covalent bonds.
- Phospholipids form the main fabric of the membrane, but proteins determine most of the membrane's functions.
- Integral proteins penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer.
- Peripheral proteins are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane, often to exposed parts of integral proteins.

Diagram

Water moves from an area of higher to lower free water concentration(lower to higher solute concentration). Two sugar solutions of different concentrations and separated by a membrane, which the solvent can pass through but the solute cannot. water molecules move randomly and may cross in either direction, but overall, water diffuses from the solution with less concentrated solute to that with more concentrated solute. This transport of water, or osmosis, equalizes the sugar concentrations of both sides.

Summary
Chapter 7 talked about how cellular membranes control the passage of substances. Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins. Molecules have a type of energy called thermal motion. One example of thermal motion is diffusion, the movement of molecules of any substance so that they spread out evenly into the available space.
The diffusion across a membrane is called passive transport because the cell does not have to expand energy to make it happen. Another type of transport is osmosis which the water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sdiJtDRJQEc

10 Key Terms:
- Diffusion: the movement of molecules of any substance so that they spread out evenly into the available space.
- Passive transport: the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane.
- Osmosis: the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
- Tonicity: the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water.
- Isotonic: referring to a solution that, when surrounding the cell, has no effect on the passage of water into or out of the cell.
- Hypertonic: referring to a solution that, when surrounding the cell, will cause the cell to lose water.
- Osmoregulation: regulation of solute concentrations and water balance a cell or organism.
- Active transport: the movement of a substance across a cell membrane, with an expenditure of energy, against its concentration or electrochemical gradient; mediated by specific transport proteins.
- Electrogenic pump: a transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane.
- Endocytosis: cellular uptake of biological molecules and particulate matter via formation of new vesicles from the plasma membrane.

Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell

3 Main Questions:
- What is nucleus?
An atom's central core, containing protons and neutrons.
- What does nucleus contains in the eukaryotic cell?
Nucleus contain most of the genes in the eukaryotic cell.
- What is the nuclear envelope function?
Encloses the nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm.

5 Main Facts:
- Cell fractionation is a useful technique for studying cell structure and function.
- Microscopes are the most important tools of cytology.
- Eukaryotic cells are generally larger than prokaryotic cells.
- Cells that have high rates of protein synthesis have particularly large numbers of ribosomes.
- Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment found in lysosomes.

Diagram
The central vacuole is mostly the largest part in a plant cell. The rest of the cytoplasm is mainly confined to a narrow zone between the vacuolar membrane and the plasma membrane.

Summary
Chapter 6 is a brief introduction about cell. Furthermore, different types of microscopes were described. Microscope is an important equipment for study Biology. There are four types of microscopes which are well known: light microscope(LM), electron microscope(EM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM).
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are the most basic structural and functional unit of every organism. All cells are bounded by a selective barrier called the plasma membrane. Chromosomes are found in all cells which carry genes in the form of DNA.

Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zufaN_aetZI&feature=fvw

10 Key Terms:
- Cytoplasm: the interior of a prokaryotic cell.
- Nucleoid: a dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.
- Cytosol: the semifluid portion of the cytoplasm.
- Chromatin: the complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome.
- Ribosome: a complex of rRNA and protein molecules that functions as a site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
- Vesicle: a sac made of membranes in the cytoplasm.
- Glycoprotein: a protein which one or more carbohydrates covalently attached to it.
- Golgi apparatus: an organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify, store, and route products of the endoplasmic reticulum and synthesize some products, notably non cellulose carbohydrates.
- Phagocytosis: a type of endocytosis in which large particulate substances taken up by a cell.
- Lysosome: a membrane-enclosed sac of hydrolytic enzymes found in the cytoplasm of animal cells and some protists.

Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules

3 Main Questions:
- What are the four main classes of large biological molecules?
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
- How many level of protein structure are there?
There are four levels of protein structure: primary , secondary, tertiary quaternary.
- What is fat ?
Fat is constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids.

5 Main Facts:
- Carbohydrates include both sugars and polymers of sugars.
- Monosaccharides, particularly glucose, are major nutrients for cells.
- In making a fat, 3 fatty acid molecules each join to glycerol by an ester linkage, a bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group.
- Fatty acids vary in length and in the number and locations of double bonds.
- Many hormones, as well as cholesterol, are steroids, which are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.

Diagrama) One water molecule is removed for each fatty acid joined to the glycerol.
b) Three fatty acid molecules each join to glycerol by an ester linkage, a bond between a hydroxyl and a carboxyl group. The carbons of the fatty acids are arranged zig-zag to suggest the actual orientations of the four single bonds extending from each carbon.

Summary
There are four important molecules of all living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. 3 of those molecules, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are called macromolecules because of their huge size. Carbohydrates include both sugars and polymers of sugars.
The compounds lipids are grouped together because they shared one important trait. They mix poorly with water. Phospholipids are essential for cells because they make up cell membranes. Polymers of amino acids are called polypeptides.

Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E2-FSHTc3U8&feature=related

10 Key Terms:
- Polymer: a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds.
- Monomers: the repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer.
- Enzymes: specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reaction in cells.
- Hydrolysis: a process that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction.
- Monosaccharide: the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides.
- Disaccharide: a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed during dehydration sunthesys.
- Lipid: one of a group of compounds, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water.
- Fat: a lipid consisting of three acids linked to one glycerol molecule.
- Phospholipids: essential for cells because they make up cell membranes.
- Unsaturated fatty acid: formed by the removal of hydrogen atoms from the carbon skeleton.

Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life

Three Main Questions:
1) What is organic chemistry?
Organic chemistry is the study about carbon compounds.
2) What are isomers?
Isomers are compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structure.
3) How many type isomer are there?
There are three types of isomer: structural isomer, geometric isomer, enantiomer.

Main Five Facts:
- Hydrocarbon is an organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen.
- The chemical groups affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions is called the functional groups.
- Structural isomers differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.
- Geometric isomers have the same covalent partnerships but they differ in their spatial arrangements.
- Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other.

Diagram Structural isomers differ in covalent partners. In the diagram, two isomers C5H12: pentane(left) and 2-methyl butane(right). Even though their structure is a little different but their number of atoms are still the same.

Summary
Chapter 4 covered about organic chemistry or the study of carbon compounds. Most organic compounds contain hydrogen atoms in addition to carbon atoms. However Co2 contains carbon it often considered inorganic because its lacks hydrogen. It is does not matter if we call CO2 organic or inorganic it is still important to the living world as the source of carbon for all organic molecules.
Functional groups is the chemical groups most important is the processes of life. They are hydroxyl, cabonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl groups. These groups affect molecular function by directly involved in chemical reactions. Amino can acts as a base by pick up H+ from the surrounding solution.

Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qOhEJK4Umds

10 Key Terms:
- Organic chemistry: the study of carbon compounds.
- Hydrocarbons: organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen.
- Isomers: compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties.
- Structural isomers: differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.
- Geometric isomers: have the same covalent partnerships, but they differ in their spatial arrangements.
- Enantiomers: isomers that are mirror images of each other.
- Functional group: a specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions.
- Hydroxyl group: a chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom joined to a hydrogen atom.
- Carbonyl group: a chemical group represent in aldehydes and ketones and consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom.
- Carboxyl group: a chemical group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also boned to a hydroxyl group.

Chapter 3 - Water And The Fitness Of The Environment

Three Main Questions
- How important is water to life?
Water is an important substance to life. 3/4 of Earth surface is water. Human and other living organisms need water to stay alive. Most number of cells are surrounded by water. Human body consists 70% of water.
- How is the quality of water on Earth?
Its getting worse due to the heavy pollution. Human activities are the main reason that effect the water quality for example: human and factory wastes flow directly into rivers.
- What is the pH scale?
pH scale is a measure of the acidity of a solution.

Five Main Facts
- Water is an important substance to sustain life.
- Cohesion happens when two substance is hold together by hydrogen bond.
- A substance that produces hydrogen ions in a solution is called acid.
- A substance that reduce hydrogen ions in a solution is called base.
- Anything that moves has kinetic energy which is the energy of motion.

Diagram



This diagram represents a hydrogen bonds between water molecules. The part that has been charged of a water molecule are attracted to oppositely charged parts of the neighbor molecules. A molecule can hydrogen-bond to multiple partners. This bond is constantly changing over time.

Summary
Water is an important substance to life. Three quarters of Earth's surface is covered by water. It is one of the most important thing for human and other living organisms to sustain their life. Water surrounded most cells and cells themselves are 70%-95% water. Albeit water is important to life, it's being polluted.
A liquid that is a mixture made up of two or more substances is called a solution. Solvent is a substance that can dissolve other substances and what is dissolved is called solute. Scientists tried to find an universal solvent and they found that nothing works better than water. However, water is not an universal solvent because there are things and substances that water can not dissolve.

Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ERy18NwemVc

10 Key Terms
- Cohesion: the binding together of like molecules, often by hydrogen bonds.
- Adhesion: the attraction between different kinds of molecules.
- Surface tension: a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of liquid.
- Kinetic energy: the energy of motion.
- Solution: a liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
- Solvent: the dissolving agent of a solution.
- Solute: a substance that is dissolved in a solution.
- Aqueous solution: a solution in water is the solvent.
- Hydrophilic: having an affinity for water.
- Hydrophobic: having an aversion to water; actually repel water.

Chapter 2 - The Chemical Context Of Life

Three Main Questions
- What are organisms consist of?
Organisms are consist of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and take space. Its occurs in many forms such as: rocks, gases, metals,...
- What is an element?
Element is a substance that is impossible to brake down by chemical reaction. There are 92 elements that were discovered by scientists.
- What is element's properties depend on?
Element's properties are mainly depend on the structure of its atoms.

Five Facts
- The study of biology is somehow connected to chemistry.
- A compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio.
- Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
- Atom is consists of even smaller part called subatomic particles.
- There are two types of bond called: covalent bonds and ionic bonds.

Diagram The periodic table is the diagram that display the chemical elements. Each box contains information held about a certain element. The periodic table is arrange into several groups who have similar chemical properties. The number on top refers to the number of protons present in the atom. The letter represents the chemical formula of that atom. Finally the number at the bottom of the box is refers to the mass of an atom.

Summary
Chapter 2 is an introduces about some basic information of how chemistry simply apply throughout our study of life and biology. An element's properties is mostly depend on the structure of its atoms. There is an unit that even smaller than atom which is subatomic. Atom is made up of subatomic particles.
The number of protons in the nucleus of a atom is called atomic number. We can calculate the mass number by finding the sum of protons and neutrons. Isotopes are a different atomic forms of the element. Most of the atoms have the same numbers of protons. Chemical bonds are the result of two atoms staying close to each others and was held by attractions. There are two types of chemical bond called covalent bond and ionic bond.

Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ERy18NwemVc

10 Key Terms:
- Element: the substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reaction.
- Compound: a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio.
- Atom: the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element.
- Atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
- Mass number: the sum of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
- Atomic mass: the total mass of an atom.
- Radioactive isotope: is one in which the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy.
- Isotope: one of several atomic forms of an element, each with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
- Energy: the capacity to cause change for instance by doing work.
- Hydrogen bond: forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom.

Chapter 1 - Introduction: Themes in the study of life.

1) What is the main theme of Biology?
Evolution is the main theme of Biology. All living organism that we know about are related to evolution. This is the only idea that makes sense and explain clearly about living things.

2) What are some properties of life?
- Response to the environment: Organisms detect and response to stimuli from their environment.
- Energy processing: All organisms must take in energy to grow, develop, reproduce and maintain its life.
- Reproduction: Living things reproduce which mean that they produce new organisms

3) What are the levels of Biological Organization?
- The Biosphere: includes most regions of land, bodies of water and the atmosphere.
- Ecosystems: consists of both living and non-living things of the environment.
- Communities: the society that living in the forest such as trees, a diversity of animal,... are a community.
- Populations: includes of all species living within a specific area.
- Organisms: Every individual living things are called organisms.
- Organs and Organ Systems: Organ are a part inside an organism. Its helps to carry out a particular function in the body.
- Tissues: group of similar cells that perform a particular function.
- Cells: Life most basic unit of structure and function.
- Organelles: a structure that performs important function in a cell.
-Molecules: a smallest unit that consisting of two or more chemical units called atoms.

Five Main Facts
- Life is what all living things do.
- The core theme of biology is evolution.
- We are able to reproduce based on a heritable information in the form of DNA.
- There are three domains of life: Bacteria, Archae and Eukarya.
- Biological Organization consists of 10 levels from the most simple to the most complex levels.

Diagram


This diagram represent the classify of life in an order. There are 8 levels and was organized from the most general to the most specify stage. This system is named Linnaen followed the name of the scientist who created it. Species that are closely related are placed in the same group.

Summary
Chapter 1 is mainly introduce about the study of life and biology. Throughout the chapter, the author was giving a lot of examples and facts to explain more about the concept. All living things have a common properties of life such as reproduction, growth and develop, energy processing,... Evolution is the core theme of biology. This is a very important thing that helps us to understand clearly about living organisms.
DNA(Deoxyribonucleic acid) is the substance of genes that is needed for living things to reproduce. Its main function is to transfer information from the parents to their offspring. The Linnaean system helps to organize the diversity of life. Its make it easier for us to understand which animals are related to other.

Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1biuNl90380

10 Key Terms
- Evolution: the process of change that has transformed life on Earth from its earliest beginnings to the diversity of organisms living today.
- Biology: the scientific study of life.
- Emergent properties: new properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.
- Systems biology: to construct models for the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems
-DNA: the substance of genes, the units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to the offspring.
- Bioinformatics: the use of computational tools to store, organize, and analyze the huge volume of data that result from high-throughput methods.
- Hypothesis: a tentative answer to a well-framed question - an explanation on trial.
- Eukaryotic cell: a type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles.
- Prokaryotic cell: a type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles.
- Data: recorded observations.